Theories of Ageing and Their Impact on Health and Social Care Essay Example for Free

Theories of Ageing and Their Impact on Health and Social Care Essay Theories of ageing and their impact on Health and Social Care Provision (D2) During life span and development, we learned about each of the stages of life. In this report I am going to focus on the final stage which is elderly. In today’s society the population of elderly people is rising. As the population of elderly people is rising, it means the need for health and social care services is rising too. As health care services have improved so much over the last number of years, it also means that elderly people will be able to live longer because of improved services and more awareness about health. 10 million people in the UK are over 65 years old. The latest projections are for 5? million more elderly people in 20 years’ time and the number will have nearly doubled to around 19 million by 2050’ – parliament UK As people start to age, most retire around the age of 65/70. For many this is a positive thing as it means more free time and also many elderly people deserve to retire as they have worked hard during their life. When a person retires they may use the time to travel or to get more involved with their community. Some may also move abroad to get more experiences and make the most of the free time they have. Many people continue life-long learning after retirement and may take up a new hobby, sport or language to fill up their free time. However, not everyone’s retirement or becoming elderly is positive. Many elderly people who are not as active may develop an illness or become very lonely. If an elderly person was to develop an illness, it may make them less mobile, depending on the severity of the illness and may end up making them become disengaged from everyone. Dependency is another aspect that elderly people have to face at some point towards the end of their life or even at the start of ageing if they do develop an illness. Many elderly people that go into care homes sometimes feel neglected and a burden. They then may not have as positive end of life as others. The government plays an important role in providing care and other services for elderly people. There are many services that are already in place for people who are 65+. Some examples are: * Free bus passes * Dental care * Eye care * Heating allowances * Free TV licences Free hearing aids * Home helps * Physiotherapy and Occupational Therapy treatment free of charge These are just some examples of what is available for people aged 65+. There are many other measures being put in place all the time for elderly people. The government also constantly make positive changes to health care services. E. G. there are more care homes and domiciliary carers now than there would have been 20 years ago. A number of years ago, many elderly people would have been put in hospital and left there till they died however this is not the case anymore. Elderly people now have a choice whether they want to stay at home or go into a type of care setting. There are many ways in which the government have put measures in place to work around the service user and not to go by what the organisation wants. E. G. an elderly person has the choice of having a carer in each day to help them or whether or not they would rather go into care home. This is a positive change because it means not as many elderly people will have to worry about being put into a home without their consent. The government also have in place a pension. This can help an elderly person to live once they retire or run out of savings. Some elderly people may sell their house to cover the cost of living in a care home. This can then cause problems for families as they do not get anything. During my work placement I got talking to an elderly lady who was telling me about her 40 grandchildren that she has and how she would have to give them all money at Christmas. She said she shouldn’t really have given them all money because she can’t afford it but that it was something she always did. There are many reasons in today’s society why there are elderly people living in poverty. There are many cut backs being made that affects everyone although more so than others E. G. an elderly person. If an elderly person doesn’t have any savings and are just relying on benefits then they may start to struggle. A lot of elderly people go into residential care simply because they cannot afford to live alone and provide food and heat for themselves. For unfortunate elderly people who become ill, then they may face barriers too because they may be on a waiting list for something that they urgently need. Many elderly people do not have family to help and support them either and so some end up isolated and having to face problems on their own. In some cases, there are problems with domiciliary carers coming into an elderly person’s house. The statistics for levels of abuse states that the highest number of cases of abuse takes place in someone’s own home. This is a problem because an elderly person is vulnerable, especially if they are ill or have a mental health problem. However, there are many measures put in place now to try and prevent abuse happening E. G. eople who apply for a caring job have to be vetted and police checked, inspections are done in care homes more frequently and elderly people have advocates to speak up for them. Finally, elderly people should look at ageing as a positive aspect of their life because there are so many ways in which they can have a happy end of life and many other reasons why they shouldn’t become disengaged to everyone. Also , elderly people still have many opportunities to learn new skills and can also gain more experiences which should be enjoyed and treasured E. G. having grandchildren and watching their family grow.

Woolworths Overview Of The Company Marketing Essay

Woolworths Overview Of The Company Marketing Essay Its core business focus is the provision of retail and financial services to upper and middle income groups mainly in South Africa but also in Africa, Australia and New Zealand.  This includes men, women and kids. Who are the competitors in the market? Other retailers selling food (butchers, bakers, convenience stores, etc. excludes takeaway food and restaurants) Mass merchants (including discount department stores; department stores) Size of the company Woolworths Holdings Limited is an investment holding company and one of the top 100 companies listed on the Johannesburg Securities Exchange Shares in Woolworths: 52% of market Employees:  24,649 Stores:  637 Turnover:  R 25.582bn p/a Market share: 9%-10%   Vision: Woolworths vision is to provide quality products and services to its customers all the time through price strategies, fresh food strategies and human resource strategies. Woolworths main strategies are to increase efficiency and be cost effective. Mission: Woolworths mission statement and main strategy is to deliver to customers the right shopping experience each and every time. Goals Sustainable growth within the context of the changing social and environmental needs Woolworths goal is to work harder to drive social development poverty drives environmental destruction and that in turn creates more poverty. To help alleviate poverty, we need to expand the existing initiatives of the Woolworths Trust and link with the transformational goals to drive enterprise development. The third priority relates to Woolworths impact on the environment, in particular the issue of diminishing biodiversity.   The fourth priority addresses climate change directly by focusing on reducing Woolworths carbon footprint. Woolworths recognizes climate change as an issue requiring urgent action if the risk of serious damage to global prosperity and security is to be avoided. Strategy: The strategic intent considers four areas of focus: the customers, operations, and the people. Woolworths main strategy is to increase efficiency and be cost effective.   Under this strategy there are different strategies that the company uses such as price strategies, fresh food strategies and human resource strategies/growth strategy. QUESTION 2 What would you change? What parts of the strategy? Low price Strategy: (high quality vs. low price) I would change the current pricing structure as it gives negative perception about the quality of their products. For consumers to believe that they offer high quality, price must be slightly more than usual as it creates a value-add considering the input costs. Product Strategy: (healthy organic foods) I would increase the percentage of organic food in the stores to increase/promote healthy eating. Growth strategy: (entering new markets) The stores are currently situated in high economic areas. I would therefore introduce Woolworths into low to medium income earners in different locations. Why would you change it? (What internal/external forces?) Low price Strategy: (high quality vs. low price) Because the input (fixed variable) costs have to be considered in order for the value added to be fairly presented so that the company can also see a good profit depending on the area of location. E.g. a Woolworths store in Cape Town will differ in prices to a Woolworths store in Mitchells Plain. Product Strategy: (healthy organic foods) When a big amount of customers consume a lot more of organic products, the will relate to Woolworths as the healthy alternative. Growth strategy: (entering new markets) This will give everyone the same shopping experience and affording them a chance not to travel too far for shopping. Safety strategy: When this is implemented in families, it can have a multiplying effect and reach a lot of people within a short period. Financial Services: (credit cards personal loans) Both cards allow customers to earn W points. Therefore, it is not necessary to have cards instead of one. One stop shop: (sells a variety of things) I would focus only on one or two offerings as too many products create confusion regarding the real product offering. QUESTION 3 How would you change it? Low price Strategy: (high quality vs. low price) I would push the price a bit higher because the high quality does not match the price. I would include all costs, improve packaging and set a higher mark-up. Product Strategy: (healthy organic foods) I would get more suppliers of organic food on board and attract more healthy-conscious customers as well create more awareness on healthy eating and how it impact on effective leadership. Growth strategy: (entering new markets) I would introduce more Woolworths stores in medium income areas first. Then, I would roll it out to low income areas (townships) such as Khayelitsha. Advantages My strategy achievement in terms of company goals Low price strategy: one of Woolworths main strategies is to increase efficiency and be cost effective. The advantages of our strategy, the high price high quality strategy, would allow the quality of Woolworths goods to be high all the time. There will be less costs going into the research and implementation of many of the many strategies for Woolworths, to allow for the high quality low price strategy. It will also be less time consuming for Woolworths and Woolworths is known in the past for having high prices. People still have the perception of Woolworths having high prices. Product Strategy: Because they have allowed for these high prices they are also able to increase the percentage of organic foods. This is obviously good for healthy eating habits and maybe in the long term decreasing the unhealthy eating disease rate in South Africa. Woolworths can also create healthy eating plans for individuals to increase buyers for the company. Growth strategy: (entering new markets) the advantage of this would be to increase the Woolworths clientele. This would allow for many other buyers to experience the Woolworths experience. Safety strategy: The advantages of this would be promoting the good ethics of the Woolworths Company. Financial Services: the advantage of merging the visa and the difference cards would allow for efficiency when coming to the till at a Woolworths store. You will be able to have the choice on which transaction you would like to use. This will allow for more customers to get involved with both choices. Having one Woolworths card with both options is better than having two cards. One stop shop: The advantages of having all these products is that it caters for all needs. This also allows the company to use a variety of promotion techniques to get through to their customers. Disadvantages Low price strategy: At the moment times are tough and people are still suffering from the last recession. To increase the prices could make the company have a bad name. The main reason they decrease the price is to give everyone the chance to have the Woolworths experience and be in the same level as their competitors offering goods at better quality. So increasing the price could steer the customers away although a slight increase wont really affect the customer too much because of the quality of their products. Product strategy: Costs of these organic goods are expensive and the company is already trying very hard to keep high quality goods at low prices. Growth Strategy: Woolworths prices are higher than the usual Shoprite. Many people in low earning areas tend to go to Shoprite but there quality of food is not as good as Woolworths. People in low income areas are not really interested in quality and they are more interested in price. I feel it is a disadvantage to put a Woolworths store in low income areas because they will not make enough money to keep the store going. Maybe they could increase the amount of stores in the medium earning areas but still this would be a far reached goal to bring it in the low earning areas. The price of the goods is just too high. Safety strategy: Because this is seen as part of work. Most workers wont want to waste their time extending this technique to their families. It will be seen as extra work to be done. Financial services: this will be time consuming for the company and there will be costs involved to implement this strategy. One stop shop: Woolworths has already made itself known for having all these products but some products are more known to their customers then others. Woolworths needs to have their other products, like homeware, better promoted. Having all these products is the store can be costly. People will rather choose to go to Mr. Price home than to buy homeware appliances at Woolworths. Woolworths needs to strengthen their market in there other products or they will be losing profits. Conclusion Woolworths strategy works very well. It works so well that I feel these small changes wont make much of a difference because they know what they have and they know where they are in the market. They were able to change their strategy over the years and even by doing so it has made them even more successful. This is the reason I feel there strategy is well implemented. QUESTION 4

Zara Company Analysis

Zara Company Analysis I selected Zara to be the topic of my strategic management individual assignment. Ive chosen this topic because Zara is one of the leading companies in the fashion industry and they follow strategies that give them competitive advantage over other competitors like: MANGO, NEXT, GAP, HM. In this paper Im going to discuss the companys background and history, the SWOT analysis, the strategies that adopted in the company, challenges, opportunities, and the mission vision and objective. Background of the company Zara is a clothing retailer who has taken a new approach in the industry. It was founded by Amancio Ortega in 1963 in Spain. Its parent company is owned 60% INDITEX by the Ortega family and Inditex has carried out in 2005 to 6.741 billion turnovers. Zara has about 2000 thousands branches around the world. Zara is a distributor of apparels. It offers a wide range of choices: the collections for women, men and children. However, the brand launched a line of cosmetics, perfumes and household products. Since the beginning of its establishment, the main idea of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Zara is to make luxury products accessible to everyone. Thus, they managed somehow to democratize luxury manufacturer of products inspired by the evolution of fashion. With this policy, Zara is now an industry capable of offering trendy products at affordable prices. On the other hand, it is a company that wants to be close to young people. Also, this desire is felt in its recruitment policy. Zara young employees with styles very marked fashion. However, Zara understands what exactly the customers need and respond to their needs very quickly. Thats the main secret of Zara, which gives them a competitive advantage. Vision, mission, and objectives VISION To be number one fashion retailer. MISSION The world is getting smaller; we want the whole world to dress in style, class, and experience unique designs weekly. Objectives The main objective is to increase the customers demand and satisfaction, by giving them the chance to experience new unique designs weekly. Spread widely and open more branches in the main cities around the world and cover 80% of them by the end of 2011. SWOT Analysis Zaras strategy has both opportunities and strengths of threats and weaknesses. The following section will describe the four dimensions of Zaras agile approach. (S)trengths: Zaras value chain is vertically integrated, which offers many advantages. It can react quickly and it may have high control over the entire process from design to final product. Supply chain is efficient when they have a smooth use of distributions centers and warehouses. Its strategy also allows distributing the products within a wide geographic range within a very short time. The other thing also is that the products are close to market demand. Their products are made only in limited editions; consequently, they must sale their products in short period of time so they can be sold at full price without having them to be returned. This responsive approach involves both lower marketing costs, and higher profit margins for the company. IT integration is also an important aspect of Zaras strategy which is significant as it enables information sharing between different joints within the company. (W)eaknesses: Zaras business model is certainly well adapted to todays needs. But it has a significant weakness, which is that it is difficult to exploit the scalability of a continued expansion. Zara accounts for 80% of consolidated sales Inditexs, which means that the entire group is very dependent on Zaras sales figures. The vertical integration of supply chain has its limitations in scalability. Zara cannot produce clothing in larger quantities for a lower cost, and then the whole concept is based on insignificant quantities as quickly distribute to the stores. The rapid processes can thus compromising the quality in some cases. To always be close to market and capture the latest trends and translate them into clothes that are ready for sale within a short time requires outstanding effort from the employees and the management. Zara fails to implement online shopping which leads to lose orders to their competitors. (O)pportunities: Online shopping became huge and significant market; customers can go online and order what they need. If Zara allows customers to purchase online, that would increase their sales. Pablo Isla is the first Deputy Chairman and Chief Executive says: we view our entry into the Indian market to be of significant strategic importance. (T)hreats: The first threat is that the rent is continuously increasing in malls, Zara need to afford the high cost of rent, which means that they have to increase prices or cut other costs. The main competitors of Zara are HM, GAP, NeXT, and Uniqlo. These companies compete with Zara in several categories like: valuation. , sales, financial ratios, and profitability. Moreover, there is competition with the Asian clothing industry, which starts brands can earn price premium over the competitors in this industry. Challenges facing the company The Textile The textile industry is undergoing dramatic changes. This is an area that requires unskilled labor, which many relocation of production abroad (mostly in Asia) in order to lower costs. In addition, there is a certain paradox. Lower costs can certainly develop a competitive advantage, but if all companies do so, they may not have a competitive advantage. Thus, innovation plays a key role in building the advantage against competitors. The question now is how to gain time in order to be more responsive to customer requests. Zara has understood this need and its strategy, is essentially based on the time savings. The two risks in the textile: Demand Three adjectives can describe the demand part. First, it is unpredictable, which means studying the market may give an indication of demand characteristics. Second, it is a variable; it follows the fashion trends. Demand is also volatile, remain loyal to a brand is not the objective of the consumer. The two important things to the customer are the aesthetics and the price: no matter who proposes, as long as it pleases the customers and the prices are reasonable, then they will buy. Competition The textile sector is hyper competitive. The competition is twofold: that of basic products from countries with low production costs, and global companies that offer products high-end. Moreover, competition depends on costs but also on quality, image, responsiveness and, logistics company. Today, off shoring does not only to create a competitive advantage. Other factors should be taken into account. New markets The sales area is centered in Europe. The desire to penetrate a new market is ready for any enterprise. However, in the case of Zara, this conquest is hampered by the centralization of management and production. It appears as the first drawback of the strategy of the company. Therefore, they should revise the strategy to integrate the North American market, one of the largest markets in the world. Thus, they planned to open a distribution center in Mexico to serve the U.S. market. Competition with China This country is the largest producer and exporter of textiles. The lifting of EU quotas (in place since 1974 with the Multi-Fiber Agreement) the 1janvier 2005 has completely destabilized the textile sector (liberalization of world trade). The entry of China into the WTO in 2002 had already had a dramatic impact on the textile sector. According to the European Apparel and Textile Organization (EURATEX) in 2004, 165,000 jobs have been lost and it is anticipated the loss of a million jobs. A major advantage of China is its low production costs (for the violation of workers rights). More generally, Asia alone accounts for 75% of global textile production. China produced in 2003 17% of global textile and with the abolition of quotas, its share reached 50% within three years. Strategy of Zara All functions are centralized at Zara in La Coruà ±a (design, marketing, and communication), enabling cost control and responsiveness. The competitive advantage of the company based on three factors: quality items, reasonable prices and very short response time. Creating and marketing The degree of development of Zara is quite low, they copy the haute couture models: 40 researchers to attend fashion shows around the world and retain the ideas of top designers to fit the model Zara. About 11000 models are available per year, while other competitors have around 3,000 models. The Spanish firm has 12 collections a year, which is huge in this sector. Communication is minimal because Zara is about 0.35% of its turnover, in contrast to other textile companies who spend 3-4% on average. This reflects the lack of advertising campaigns and the consolidation of the communications department at Corunna. The groups websites are in English or Spanish, you cannot buy over the internet which reduces the cost of site management. Their philosophy is: No Marketing, no communication. Time Time is more important than costs. It is a primary fact in the world of fashion. Design, manufacture and delivery can be done within fortnight, while the market average is about two months. It is interesting to quote the remark of one analyst: Manufacturing activity is Inditex a cost center that has for vocation to better serve the sales activities. The cost is certainly higher than 20% of outsourcing but it is more than offset by increased reaction rate and a lower risk. The time strategy is the dominant strategy, because as I mentioned above, time is a cost itself for the company, so when Zara manufacture and deliver the products in two weeks while the others take months to finish this process, this means that Zara will have the chance to reduce costs and increase revenues, also increase the intangible and tangible assets of the company. Competition Zara cannot afford to operate in an extremely competitive market. So it must offer products of superior range by responding quickly to customer requirements and desires. Therefore, the distribution is important because it represents up to half the cost of the product, which means that the competitive advantage is created by low distribution costs. Marketing and sales Signs are open in the inner cities in order to compete with more expensive brands, being present in the very neighborhoods merchants in large cities. Stores are proper name, there are no deductibles Zara. The level of inventory turnover is very high; the shops are stocked twice a week, which creates a certain image of scarcity that can attract customers who do not hesitate to come to Zara quite frequently in order to discover the new collections of articles. Conclusion After we saw this issue appears, the disadvantages and advantages of Zaras strategy. First, it is important to note the unusual degree of it, since it is totally different from that established by the other competitors. The strategy worked to some extent but in the long run, it seems impossible to continue because as we saw in Part III, it is a barrier to entering new markets. In a context of globalization, it seems completely incongruous. If Zara wants a foothold in the U.S., it must decentralize its production, or need to relocate its production factors. The time factor can nevertheless still be the key to the European market but to enter the U.S. market, another strategy is to be considered. But, will they be sufficient to counter the Chinese giant?

jane eyre :: essays research papers

When General Rochambeau met General Washington in 1781 to determine their next move against the British, Washington wanted to attack New York City. Rochambeau convinced him that the wiser move was to move South. Word had come from General Lafayette in Virginia that Cornwallis had taken up a defensive position at Yorktown. Cornwallis was situated next to the York River. If they could surround the city by land and cut off Cornwallis' escape route on the river, Washington and Rochambeau would strike an enormous blow to the British forces. Planning for the elaborate campaign began immediately. French Admiral de Grasse, stationed in the West Indies, would sail with his fleet to the Chesapeake Bay and secure the mouth of the York River. Meanwhile, Washington and Rochambeau would march south to Yorktown and form a semicircle around the city. The plan was simple in concept, but it would take great military skill to execute. First, Washington and Rochambeau started to march towards New York City. They stationed approximately 2500 men at the American forts near the city to fool the British into believing that Washington's entire force was still there. Then the combined Franco-American army raced south to Virginia. As they marched south, Admiral de Grasse's fleet arrived at the Chesapeake Bay. They defeated the British fleet of Admiral Thomas Graves and won control of the entire bay. More importantly, this meant that they controlled the mouth of the York River and could prevent both Cornwallis' escape and any British communication with Cornwallis. On September 28, 1781, Washington and Rochambeau, along with Lafayette's troops and 3,000 of de Grasse's men, arrived at Yorktown. In all, there were approximately 17,000 men converging on Cornwallis' camp. The stage was set for the final showdown in America's fight for independence. The combined forces approached Yorktown from the South. The French, under Rochambeau, formed the left flank of the attack, while the American troops, under Washington and Lafayette, approached from the right. The city was soon surrounded and under heavy fire. On October 14, the Franco-American forces captured 2 major British redoubts. Cornwallis' options were running out. He even tried sending blacks infected with smallpox over enemy lines in an attempt to infect the American and French troops. After a futile counterattack, Cornwallis offered to surrender on October 17. On the 19th of October, the papers were signed and he officially surrendered. jane eyre :: essays research papers When General Rochambeau met General Washington in 1781 to determine their next move against the British, Washington wanted to attack New York City. Rochambeau convinced him that the wiser move was to move South. Word had come from General Lafayette in Virginia that Cornwallis had taken up a defensive position at Yorktown. Cornwallis was situated next to the York River. If they could surround the city by land and cut off Cornwallis' escape route on the river, Washington and Rochambeau would strike an enormous blow to the British forces. Planning for the elaborate campaign began immediately. French Admiral de Grasse, stationed in the West Indies, would sail with his fleet to the Chesapeake Bay and secure the mouth of the York River. Meanwhile, Washington and Rochambeau would march south to Yorktown and form a semicircle around the city. The plan was simple in concept, but it would take great military skill to execute. First, Washington and Rochambeau started to march towards New York City. They stationed approximately 2500 men at the American forts near the city to fool the British into believing that Washington's entire force was still there. Then the combined Franco-American army raced south to Virginia. As they marched south, Admiral de Grasse's fleet arrived at the Chesapeake Bay. They defeated the British fleet of Admiral Thomas Graves and won control of the entire bay. More importantly, this meant that they controlled the mouth of the York River and could prevent both Cornwallis' escape and any British communication with Cornwallis. On September 28, 1781, Washington and Rochambeau, along with Lafayette's troops and 3,000 of de Grasse's men, arrived at Yorktown. In all, there were approximately 17,000 men converging on Cornwallis' camp. The stage was set for the final showdown in America's fight for independence. The combined forces approached Yorktown from the South. The French, under Rochambeau, formed the left flank of the attack, while the American troops, under Washington and Lafayette, approached from the right. The city was soon surrounded and under heavy fire. On October 14, the Franco-American forces captured 2 major British redoubts. Cornwallis' options were running out. He even tried sending blacks infected with smallpox over enemy lines in an attempt to infect the American and French troops. After a futile counterattack, Cornwallis offered to surrender on October 17. On the 19th of October, the papers were signed and he officially surrendered.

Social Contract Essay -- essays research papers

The Social Contract- Rousseau's principal aim in writing The Social Contract is to determine how freedom may be possible in civil society, and we might do well to pause briefly and understand what he means by "freedom." In the state of nature we enjoy the physical freedom of having no restraints on our behavior. By entering into the social contract, we place restraints on our behavior, which make it possible to live in a community. By giving up our physical freedom, however, we gain the civil freedom of being able to think rationally. We can put a check on our impulses and desires, and thus learn to think morally. The term "morality" only has significance within the confines of civil society, according to Rousseau. Not just freedom, then, but also rationality and morality, are only possible within civil society. And civil society, says Rousseau, is only possible if we agree to the social contract. Thus, we do not only have to thank society for the mutual protection and peace it affords us; we also owe our rationality and morality to civil society. In short, we would not be human if we were not active participants in society. This last step determines the heavily communitarian perspective that Rousseau adopts. If we can only be fully human under the auspices of the social contract, then that contract is more important than the individuals that agree to it. After all,...

Bureaucratic Management Essay

An organisation can be best describes as a unit which consists of individuals who, in order to achieve certain objectives, influence other people. They may be trying to achieve wealth or well being through differing processes, technologies, structures and cultures. In order to run an organisation well management is needed. Management then is the planning, organising, leading and controlling of human resources, s well as other resources, in order to achieve effective goals. Rosemary Stewart describes a manager as; â€Å"Someone who gets things done with the aid of people† (Boddy P11) Bureaucratic Management An important aim for most businesses today is to increase productivity and efficiency. In order to do so, many businesses adopt theoretical approached to management. The theory of bureaucracy is one in which is the underlying theme of control in many organisations of today. Bureaucratic management is described as â€Å"a formal system of organisation in order to maintain efficiency and effectiveness.† (Contemporary Management P48) Max Weber developed the theory of bureaucratic management and derived five main principles which should be adopted when using bureaucratic management. Although his theories were very sound, perhaps the most influential principles of management in organisations are that of Henri Fayol. He devised 14 theories of management however some of these theories are similar to that of Max Weber. Like Weber, Fayol believed in division of labour where workers would be given more job duties and responsibilities. He also believed in authority and responsibility similar to Weber’s theory, where authority should come from â€Å"personal expertise, technical knowledge moral worth and the ability to lead to generate commitment from subordinates† (Contemporary Management P50) Weber believed in dual command, similar to this, Fayol believed unity of command. This principle involves an employee reporting to and only receiving orders from one supervisor. Next he devised that there should be a line of authority which can be described as the line of command starting at the bottom of the organisation and following up to the very top of the organisation. In bureaucratic management it is important to control the number of levels in the hierarchy because the more managers there are the longer it takes to plan and organise activities. Similarly he believed that an effective bureaucratic work place should have a form of centralisation. Fayol believed that authority should not be centralised at the top of the chain of command. As a result of centralisation of authority, it would mean managers at the top of the hierarchy are able to make more decisions and therefore the people lower down the line of authority would simply follow their direction. In a bureaucratic organisation there is a need for unity of direction which Fayol picked up on. He believed that effective bureaucratic organisations which devised a plan of direction would eradicate ineffectiveness and unfocused activities. On the other hand, bureaucratic organisations should treat employees with equity and fairness as well as sustain order. Fayol described order as â€Å"the methodical arrangement of positions to provide the organisation with the greatest benefit.† (Contemporary Management P50). Linked to this he believed in the discipline within the organisation whereby employees could focus on obedience, energy and respect for authorititive figures. On the other hand, bureaucratic management according to Fayol should encourage employees to use initiative as well as a system whereby employees are rewarded in order to increase productivity and increase enjoyment for the employees. Included in these reward systems were profit sharing plans and bonuses. He recognised the need for long-term employment because through time people develop their skills. Similarly he believed that some form of agreement should be made by the organisation and its employees in order to maintain that employees are treated fairly and overall be rewarded for their performance. Espirit De Crops is an important part in the success of a bureaucratic organisation because it refers to a shared feeling of motivation and commitment to a specific cause. When managers are able to encourage personal and verbal relations between both managers and workers espirit de corps can be developed. Furthermore, this can be linked to Human Relations management. Human Relations Management Human relations management is the belief that a concern for human factors such as job specialisation in order to improve productivity. It was based on the belief that people have a social dimension and have important links not just to the workplace, but out with the organisation itself. Human relations was a move from a ‘rational economic’ view of man, where a employee will increase productivity with economic benefits such as wage rises and bonuses; to a social view of man, where productivity will increase with an increase in employee relation ships and in general better social conditions. Mary Parker Follet believed in the creativity of group processes. On the other hand she did not believe that division of labour was the right way to achieve optimised productivity unlike Fayols’ bureaucratic theories. Again, in comparison to strict lines of authority in bureaucratic management she believed that managers in an affective human relations organisation should not manipulate their subordinates. Instead, they should be trained to use their powers responsibility. She also argued against Fayols’ belief that there should be a clear hierarchy of authority by advising that it would be effective if leadership moves from person to person depending on the individual situation or who is best suited to the job. Unlike the principle of unity of command, Human relations theory allowed employees to work together and interact with managers giving their opinions and beliefs in order to optimise productivity. It also gives employees the satisfaction of knowing their opinions are valued. Elton Mayo elaborated on human relations management theory when he undertook the Hawthorne studies. He examined the social and psychological factors which affected performance. His studies concluded that physical conditions had a small impact on output and that it was social changes which impact productivity. These changed occurred because the teams were paid more attention to and their opinions mattered to managers. On the other hand, it concluded that financial initiatives helped increase productivity (similar to bureaucratic practises). The study later found that people performed less effectively because they began to practice specific social norms. In bureaucratic management employees have to behave in strict ways whereas human relations management theories found differing social behaviour. During the Hawthorne studies employees devised that they should behave in specific way and therefore those who did not abide by these social norms were classified as rate busters; who were people who tried to more in order to gain more, chisellers; employees who underperformer and squealers; who told tales to managers. Relevance Today Bureaucratic management has been proven to be very successful today. The Hilton hotel group are a relevant example because they have many outlets through-out the world. They must set out global standards and procedures in order for managers to run them it effectively. Included in these procedures is how staff is recruited and trained. Similarly rules and regulations set out in manual should be followed precisely, whether its how to treat their customers or how to run their accounts. On the other hand, bureaucratic management is not suitable for organisations which are prone to change. On the other hand, management control in bureaucratic management is very high because authority is clearly marked out, with managers being the imperative and employees must follow their orders. Human Relations Management is successful in some organisation today. Organisations that tend to benefit from Human Relations Management are call centres because employees tend to work in teams and have a closer interaction with their managers. However the influence on performance that Mayo discussed is much more complicated than assumed because by providing good supervision and adequate working conditions can increase satisfaction within the organisation but does not always mean it will increase productivity. Management control in an organisation which is adopts Human Relations management does have management control however it is less centralised. Employees are able to put across ideas and perspectives. Similarly, in some organisations the role of management can be shifted depending on who is best suited to the job. Overall, adopting theories of management in an organisation is very important because it can shape the way you run your business, but more importantly it can increase productivity and effectiveness by all who are involved in the organisation. Bureaucratic management is a system of management which is widely used today and more classical compare to human relations management. It is clear to see that there are differences between bureaucratic management and human relations management, the most obvious being that human relations management takes into consideration the social behaviours of employees whereas bureaucratic management concentrates more on hierarchy and strict division of labour.

Crytography & Computer attack Essay

Computer attack involves operations that deny, disrupt, destroy or degrade information stored in computers and computer networks. In other words, computer attack is known as electronic attack used against a computer. The attackers of stored information in computer are called hackers or intruders. A difference occurs between computer attackers in the level of skill and sophistication of the attack (Roman Peter, 2007). More recently, attackers have developed skills that make it possible for them to access other people’s information by using automated tools. The automated and sophisticated tools are cheaply available in the market making it possible to access other people’s computer. The major incidents of computer attacks include bringing down of eBay, Yahoo! and Amazon. com by hackers. The motives for computer attack are to destroy data or information and access individual information for political, social and financial gain. On individual basis a hacker can attack personal computer to destroy information on revenge mission, or out of grudge. Attackers of computers especially in political perspective aim at gaining information for their opponent candidates to outperform him or her during campaigns (Rhodes Mary, 2003). In the context of business, hackers go for core variables necessary to compete in global markets such as information related to marketing strategies. Hackers of computer information do so once they have a particular opportunity such as use of high speed digital subscriber line. It is an opportunity that has been used by hackers to gain access to private information. The internet is known as an important tool in education or business but some offenders find ways of using internet provided in cyber to commit crimes. The offenders satisfy their needs while putting their victims at risk. There are a number of cyber crimes popular among internet offenders such as credit card fraud, cyber stalking, identity theft, software piracy, cyber terrorism and phonograph. These crimes are very common in the modern society as internet is cheaply available in cybercafes and mobile phones. The children and young generation are exposed to cyber risks such as addiction to phonographic sites. Software piracy is another common cyber crime in the modern world of advanced technology. Cyber crimes are as dangerous as any other form of crime and require law enforcement officers to be careful when handling cyber criminals. As a complex issue some offenders are prosecuted while others are set free. Three main reasons that lead to prosecution of some criminals and release of others include first, there are no defined penal laws relating to cyber crimes (Wible Brent, 2003). This means that some individuals search information from the internet and end up exceeding certain legal provisions without their knowledge. Such individuals are cyber criminals but are never arrested especially employees working in a networked office. Second, considering whether an individual has or has not committed a previous offense without computer or an offense similar in nature. Individuals who are convicted of other offences outside the cyber such as bank robbery are prosecuted of cyber crime once they are considered as suspects. Third, children below the age of eighteen years which is considered as the average age for a person to be prosecuted are set free while they are cyber offenders. The law about cyber crime favors some offenders while others are charged with criminal activities. Children are the major victims in cyber crime and yet are protected by the law owing to age factor. References Roman Peter, 2007, Computer Crimes, American Criminal Law Review, Vol. 44. Wible Brent, 2003, A Site Where Hackers Are Welcome: Using Hack-in Contests to Shape preferences and Deter Computer Crime, Yale Law Journal, Vol. 112. Rhodes Mary, 2003, Computer Crimes, American Criminal Law Review, Vol. 40.